Psychological models of children's play have featured in textbooks for many years, but the most recent and interesting theory is that of Gordon Sturrock and Perry Else, called Psycholudics. This theory adds a refreshing and much-needed practical element to the genre, because it can be directly applied to the workplace setting.
It shows the importance of:
* Making sure children receive positive responses to their invitations to play - repeated negative responses can affect a child's self-esteem.
* Allowing children to instigate and plan activities themselves, rather than imposing adult ideas on them.
* Trying not to intervene when children are engrossed in play - except for safety reasons - keeping the play going if a child has to leave, or joining in if invited to participate.
* Dealing sensitively with decisions over when to end children's play activities.
* Making sure children are not dominated by others - either adults or children - when playing, as this can affect their socialisation later in life.
Below is the basic structure of Psycholudics, with links to work-based ethics.
The play cycle
As children play, they seek sensations by interacting with the source of their stimuli - other children, toys or the natural environment - and so a play cycle develops.
* Children at play are developing play cycles continually. The child who plays alone with a doll, for example, is often in a socio-dramatic play-type cycle, using his or her existing knowledge of human relationships by projecting thoughts on to the doll, and receiving the pretend animations of the doll to help maintain the cycle. Similarly, children playing in large groups have their own developing cycles, each fitting the others'
through some shared understanding of the game being played.
How play starts - the metalude
The play cycle begins in the child's pre-conscious thoughts. It is at the point of daydreaming where the playful drive is created and issued as a play cue and, once it is taken up by a responding play partner, the cycle begins. The metalude signals the start of the play process and, while it supports a single play thought in the child's consciousness, it can change within micro-seconds to become another playful thought, or an extended version of its original self.
* Within the metalude, children's thoughts are changing rapidly. This can be seen in free-play activities and, especially, fantasy play, where children are regularly adapting the play 'script' to introduce new make-believe characters or situations.
The play cue
A play cue can be issued in various guises, either by eye contact, verbal expression, body language, or through the use of materials.
* Children use cues all the time. Watch children playing freely in your setting and you will witness a myriad of cues, from a football being kicked towards you to a brief questioning look. A verbal invite or a written note may also be used.
The play return
Once a child has issued a play cue, he or she will wait for a play return before the play cycle can begin. This response mostly comes from other children or adults, but may also be found in the environment, for example being able to find materials to build a den. Play returns might be the cue of another child's intentions for the direction of the play cycle, therefore cues and returns between players must have reached an equilibrium before a lengthy play cycle can be maintained.
* Continuous negative returns caon seriously affects a child's self-esteem, and can be detrimental to the child's overall value of play itself. It is very important, therefore, for adults to ensure that all returns are as positive as possible, so that play cycles can be developed. However, the child still needs to be instigating and maintaining the cycle at all times.
The play frame
The space created by the developing play cycle is a child-initiated, flexible boundary called the play frame. The play frame begins in the internal world of the child and extends into the physical world. It often incorporates other players.
* Physical boundaries - such as a football pitch, snooker table, swimming pool or playground - are the most obvious play frames to identify. Less obvious frames are narratives - imaginary play and games - where children are continually changing the narrative during play, so that the frame has to continually adapt also. Adults often apply frames through the use of themed activities, but if children are not involved in the planning of these they will often break free and create their own, more interesting, play cycle.
Play flow
Once a play frame has been established then the play cycle enables play flow to take place. Play flow is where the child is entirely engrossed in the play cycle. During play flow, players may cover a number of themes in just a few moments, and will change roles, ideas and interests at a considerable rate. The play also becomes self-regulated, and adults are often on the outside of the frame looking in, and not inside directing the play cycle by their own desire to play, guide, instruct, manipulate or teach.
* It is a wonderful thing for playworkers to observe play flow; being able to watch children develop ideas and then test these out on the world with their own personal hypotheses. What is difficult for many adults, however, is to remain on the outside of the play frame unless invited, only stepping in to tend to injuries or potentially threatening situations.
Play annihilation
Children bring play to a natural end themselves, whether this is the simple end to a board game, or the tearing up of a picture, which often occurs because the play frame has lost its pre-existing meaning. This conclusion in play is called play annihilation.
* Adults often misinterpret a child's decision to destroy a product they have spent hours making, because they feel the product itself is valuable.
But the child has gained all the experience it wants through the process.
Play annihilation also raises questions as to when adults should intervene in play to end a session.
Dysplay
The corruption of the play cycle due to breakdown of the cue or return is called dysplay. This corruption may be due to poor responses from adults, children or the environment.
* Children who regularly invite participation of another player into their play frame, but are either ignored, get the wrong type of response or find - once the cycle has developed - that the other player wishes to dominate, will continually feel undervalued and frustrated. This may have an effect on their later ability to form long-term relationships.
Containment
Containment is when an adult maintains the play frame. This usually takes the form of assisting new players find their bearings, or holding the play frame from session to session, or intervening where children are at risk of harming themselves or others.
* While it is important for adults to maintain a distance from children's play, occasionally it is required that they keep play going. For example, playing with a child while his or her play partner goes to the toilet.
Adulteration
When an adult solely determines the play activities in a session and suggests how, what, when and why the play will operate this is adulteration.
* Adults need to be extremely sensitive to the way they intervene in children's play. It is worth reflecting on your own practices by regularly questioning why you intervene.
Gordon Sturrock is a lecturer in education and community studies at the University of East London. Perry Else is the community recreation and play manager for Sheffield City Council. Philip Waters is a playwork trainer in York.
Student links
An understanding of the Psycholudic model will help support underpinning knowledge for the following:
* CACHE Certificate in Playwork - Unit 1
* CACHE Diploma in Playwork - Unit 2.1
* Playwork S/NVQ 2 - Units PW1, PW2 & PW3
* Playwork S/NVQ 3 - Units PB23, PC12 & PC13
* Daycare Standards - Standard 3
* KCN's Aiming High - Standards 2 & 4
* London Play's Quality in Play - Standards 4, 5 & 6.
Further reading
* Else, P (2000) Play Cues and the Play Cycle. Widening Horizons'
conference report from the National Centre for Playwork Education North East. University of Northumbria, Newcastle, July 2000.
* Else, P and Sturrock, G (1998) Play in a Changing Society: Research, Design, Application. A paper for the IPA/USA Triennial National Conference, June 1998.
