Every pre-schooler is unique in his or her individual character, sense of humour, curiosity, skills and talents. But in every nursery school, there are likely to be a few children who stand out for their ability to learn faster than others.
This is often initially expressed in language development, with precocious children using more sophisticated vocabularies and sentence structures than their peers; advanced number skills are also a good indicator. While these factors often correlate with later academic success, it is important to remember that statistics never tell the whole story, and that children have a tendency to surprise us! Indeed, many pre-schoolers who never take an interest in anything other than toys and mud may go on to become great scientists and politicians, while others who spend their toddlerhood engrossed in books and times tables may turn their energies to unexpected artistic, sporting or outdoor pursuits as they mature. That being said, early academic talent should not be ignored. It is critical to capitalise on children's talents and enthusiasm for learning, by striking a healthy balance between cognitive and social intelligence, curiosity, creativity and fun.
DEBATE IS CALLED OFF
We often hear expressions like 'gifted musician', 'natural athlete' or 'innate intelligence', as if such talents were genetically determined, inborn gifts that few children are lucky enough to possess. In reality, genes alone cannot guarantee success.
The offspring of professional athletes, mathematicians, maestros or fine artists do not become prodigies just by dint of their genetic make-up. The biological endowment and the family, school and cultural environments all play crucial roles in creating our so-called 'geniuses'.
Scientists now agree that a debate focusing on Nature versus Nurture is no longer appropriate. Research into child development, especially studies aimed at unravelling the secrets behind outstanding individual talents, no longer try to isolate the effects of nature or nurture. Instead, they seek to understand the complex interactions that exist between genes and the environment.
DO SOME HAVE 'BETTER' GENES THAN OTHERS?
New developments in scientific research have allowed us to sequence the human genome, revealing that our genetic make-up consists of only some 30,000 genes, 98 per cent of which are similar to those of the chimpanzee. But complex genomes are not restricted to apes; even the common mouse possesses almost as many genes as us, and some plants actually have even more genes than humans! So, it isn't the absolute number of different genes that counts.
Importantly, single genes often fulfil multiple functions and can be expressed in the brain, the heart, the gut and so on. It is rare for a single gene to have a solitary function. So, actions such as walking or talking involve a huge number of interacting genes.
Contrary to what we are used to reading in the media, the idea of a 'gene for language' or a 'gene for intelligence' is a misconception. The reality is far more complex, involving not only interactions between the genes themselves but also between the genes and the environment in which a person develops. It is the way genes are expressed and work together that both differentiates our species from others, and makes each of us individuals.
This is not to say that genes are unimportant in contributing to some individuals standing out from others. But can a person actually have 'better' genes than others? Do precocious children inherit something different from their parents? The answer is only a very partial 'yes'.
All humans share a basic set of genes. However, across individuals there exist tiny differences in the precise DNA coding of some of these genes. Scientists call these variations 'allelic differences' or 'polymorphisms'. We are still in the process of learning about the ways in which genes are expressed and their subsequent effects on development, but research is beginning to unravel how allelic variations may affect a person's susceptibility to positive outcomes such as intelligence or musicality, and negative outcomes such as conduct disorders or illness.
GENES AND ENVIRONMENT: LEARNING FROM BABY RATS
To illustrate the complicated interaction between nature and nurture, a group of researchers in Canada, led by Michael Meaney, studied a population of laboratory rats to explore the effects of mother-baby interaction on gene expression. The research stemmed from a basic observation that some mother rats spontaneously lick and groom their pups much more than others.
To uncover the effects of these behavioural differences on the rat pups' genes, the team studied their responses to stress. Pups formed two groups according to their mother's level of nurturing, with their hormonal responses to a stressful situation measured to see whether there was a correlation between early nurturing and hormonal reactions to stress.
The pups that received good nurturing (more spontaneous licking/grooming from their mothers) produced fewer stress hormones (a genetically-influenced response) when faced with stressful situations, compared with pups of less nurturing mothers. These hormonal differences persisted into adulthood, with the nurtured rats growing up into adults who were much better able to deal with stress. In other words, the offspring of more maternal mother rats were protected from over-reacting to stressful situations and this translated into long-term positive effects on their general health.
In and of itself, this finding doesn't distinguish between genetic and environmental effects, because it could be that more nurturing rats also provide a genetic advantage for their offspring. So, the researchers went one step further: they removed another set of pups at birth from the poorer mothers and had the caring mother rats raise them instead (the equivalent of infant adoption). The results highlighted a clear environmental effect on the development of the adopted baby rats: their gene expression changed as a result of their adoptive nurturing environment, so they now grew up to produce fewer stress hormones.
Of course, we've known for ages that an emotionally secure beginning can be protective for later life, but Meaney's work is the first to yield a biological explanation: gene function is not predetermined and static. Rather, environmental factors actually influence how much protein a gene expresses and at which periods over developmental time it is expressed. In sum, the environment doesn't just affect behaviour; it also has an impact on how genes are expressed.
A HUMAN EXAMPLE
Another example of the intricate interaction between genes and environment indicates that individuals who possess two short alleles of a particular gene tend to be more vulnerable to strong emotions, whereas those with two long alleles of this gene are emotionally stable. However, the emotional vulnerability of children with the two short alleles is significantly affected by their environment. Those growing up in a Western individualistic society are more susceptible to the effects of the shorter alleles than those living in a collectivist society like India, where large families live together.
This suggests that having the strong social support of an extended family protects young children with two short alleles from genetic vulnerability to emotional imbalance. The same is likely to be true for giftedness, be it academic, musical, or artistic. Without the necessary nurturing of the child's genetic propensity, special talents are unlikely to be properly realised.
NURTURING TALENT IN THE PRE-SCHOOL YEARS
Research now indicates that high academic achievers are not necessarily 'born smarter' than others; rather, they tend to develop more self-discipline and work much harder, for reasons related both to their inherent abilities and to the environment in which they are raised. This was true of young Mozart and of many other historically eminent musicians and scholars. And this clearly holds for some of our favourite athletes, such as David Beckham or Andy Murray.
None of these prodigies would have reached such heights without a huge amount of focused practice, support and encouragement. Clearly, not everyone can do just anything; genes play a role in stretching boundaries or placing limits on development. But those born with a genetic advantage from nature also require nurture to succeed.
The last three decades have seen vast improvements in the provision of extra help for schoolchildren with special needs, yet in many educational establishments there remains a shortage of resources for gifted children. Parents often complain that the more able the child, the less attention they get in the classroom, which in turn can lead to boredom and disruptive behaviour.
Some teachers worry about the impact of singling out particularly able children, on the children and on their peers. But failing to stimulate very able children can be more detrimental than marking them out for special attention, not just because these children may not reach their potential, but because the frustration caused by being made to follow an unsuitable curriculum is likely to convert a strong desire to learn into an even stronger desire to get attention.
Mother and daughter
Annette Karmiloff-Smith studied in Geneva with Jean Piaget, where she completed her doctorate, and is now a Professorial Research Fellow at the Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London
Kyra Karmiloff has a BSc in Anthro-pology and an MSc in Psychological Research Methods from 
University College London and was a research assistant at the Centre for Studies in Language at Cambridge University.
She is a novelist and co-author with her mother of three books on child development and on language acquisition
REFERENCES
- - Caspi, A, et al (2003). 'Influence of Life Stress on Depression: Moderation by a Polymorphism in the 5-HTT Gene', Science, 301, 5631, 386-389
- - Huttenlocher, PR (2002). Neural Plasticity: The effects of the environment on the development of the cerebral cortex. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
- - Kaffman, A & Meaney, MJ (2007) 'Neurodevelopmental sequelae of postnatal maternal care in rodents: clinical and research implications of molecular insights', Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(3-4), 224-244
- - Karmiloff, K & Karmiloff-Smith, A (2010). Getting to Know Your Baby: A parent's guide to early child development. London: Caroll & Brown.
- - Meaney, MJ, Fish, EW, Shahrokh, D, Bagot, R, Caldji, C, Bredy, T & Szyf, M (2004) 'Epigenetic programming of stress response through variations in maternal care'. Academy of Sciences, 1267-180.
- - Shenk, David (2010). The Genius in All of Us: Why Everything You've Been Told About Genetics, Talent and IQ is Wrong. New York: Random House
